Category: Types

Petrified Wood

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Scholar's Rock - Petrified WoodPlace of origin:
Hami, Xinjing Province; Beijing, Liaoning Province; Zhejiang Province

Mineral composition:
Elements resulting from silicification, ironization, and calcification

Muhuashi derives from wood buried in the earth a hundred million years ago that has silicified over time, a process that yields some good stones for the studio. Xylon in the wood has been replaced by silicon dioxide (SiO2), but the wood texture remains. Petrified wood is quite hard and most are brown or yellowish brown. They have a jade-like feel and were objects of appreciation as early as the Tang dynasty. There are two examples of petrified wood collected in the Ming dynasty in Zhejiang province.

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Fengli Stone

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Scholar's Rock - Fengli StonePlace of origin:
Deserts of Inner Mongolia and Hami, Xinjiang

Mineral composition:
Quartz, agate, jasper, protein, chalcedony

Obtained in the provinces of Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia, and the Gobi desert of Ganxu, fengli are stones that have been naturally ground or worn down by the action of wind and sand or subsurface heat. They are usually less than 20 centimeters across. Their diverse shapes are due in part to their size: smaller stones are more likely to be subjected to the action of these natural forces. They may be composed of agate, jade, opal, quartz, or crystal, and the differences in their mineral content account for their variety of color. Fengli are usually white, grey, red, or brown. Beautifully shaped, they are admired for their variety and striking texture.

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Red River Stone

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Scholar's Rock - Red River StonePlace of origin:
Caitao Red River Stones – Red River of Heshan, Guangxi Province
Dahua Red River Stones – Red River of Dahua County, Guangxi Province

Mineral composition:
Siliceous rock

These rocks are composed primarily of quartz and are found in the Red Water River of Guanxi province. There has been a growing demand for them from Southeast Asian collectors however in recent years good examples could only be found in the riverbed twenty meters below the surface, not in shallow waters. As a result of their scarcity, there are few opportunities to see them in the West. They will however surely attract more attention in the future.

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Kun Stone

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Scholar's Rock - Kun StonePlace of origin:
Yufeng Mountain in Kunshan City, Jiangsu Province

Mineral composition:
Dolomite and silicilate

Produce in Kunshan, Jiangsu province, Kun rocks are made of berg crystal formed in dolomite from siliceous liquid that filled the holes and tissues of the rock. To make them suitable for display is quite complex. The quality of Kun rocks only becomes evident after prolonged exposure to the sun for five to six days followed by repeated washing of the mud in the holes. After hundreds of years of extraction, they have become quite rare and successive governments have banned their mining for fear of mountain erosion.

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Chrysanthemum Stone

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Scholar's Rock - Chrysanthemum StonePlace of origin:
Liuyang County, Hunan Province; Enshi County, Hubei Province; Yongfeng County, Jiangxi Province

Mineral composition:
Limestone; cinerea (ash-colored) limestone

Unique and highly prized among stone collectors, chrysanthemum stones appear to be white flowers embedded in black rock; exhibiting such details as petals and stamen, they look so vivid that many people mistake them for fossilized flowers. In his Elegant Stones (Ya Shi), the contemporary scholar Zhang Hongzhao explains their formation:

“When calcites in the chrysanthemum stone integrate, the stone materials will condense and then solidify toward the center, forming big or small patterns in shapes resembling those of chrysanthemums.”

Although the flowers are naturally formed, only through polishing do they become prominent. In 1915, a chrysanthemum stone hanging screen made in Liuyang won the Gold Award at the International Fair in Panama, which has made this stone type widely popular ever since.

Chrysanthemum stones from different places show slight variations in the shapes of their flowers. The flowers of Liuyang chrysanthemum stones are small but evenly arranged. The chrysanthemum scholars’ rocks and chrysanthemum inkstones available today are all made of Liuyang chrysanthemum stones, although there are inevitably some exceptions. The flowers of chrysanthemum stones from Enshi are large and of different sizes. As well, there is a clearer distinction between the base stone and the bright, pure white flowers. The flowers of chrysanthemum stones from Yongfeng also vary, not only in size but in the patterns of their flowers, and look more like painted pictures. Some of the Yongfeng stones have slight yellow or red color in them.

Since chrysanthemum stones are mountain stones (although some are found in water), some polishing is done to make their colors more distinct. However, the flowers should not be carved into relief (as is sometimes done) and the contact area between the flowers and the stone should be retained so as to emphasize the natural evolution of such stones. Misguided human effort to highlight the flower patterns can lead to unfortunate aesthetic results.

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Laoshan Green Stone

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Scholar's Rock - Laoshan Green StonePlace of origin:
Yangkouwan of the Laoshan Mountain, Qiangdao, Shandong Province

Mineral composition:
Serpentine (metamorphic rock); pyrophyllite (a clay composed of aluminum silicate); amphibole (igneous rock)

Laoshan, in Shandong Province, is famous because the makers of Qingdao Beer use the spring water there for brewing. As early as the Song and Yuan dynasties, people collected the green stones found in the sea there as scholars’ rocks. As is recorded in the County Record of Jimo in the Qing Dynasty, Baibi, a miliary officer of Jimo, offered two Laoshan green stones to Emperor Qianlong, who was greatly delighted. Shen Xin, the Qing dynasty compiler of A Record of Grotesque Stones (Guaishi lu) wrote:

“The Laoshan stone is quite hard and the color is like that of an ancient tripod [a bronze ding, which would have had a green patina]. What is lovely is that some of the stones have white streaks, looking like melting snow. Big stones resemble erupting springs, have gullies on them and, when used as ornaments, closely matched Ying stones and Lingbi stones in elegance; small stones, on the other hand, are like yanshan [ink mountain stones].”

Laoshan stones are mainly green, and appear elegant and reserved. Normally, those of deep green color are nicknamed “sea bottom jade” (haidi yu) and those fibrous or crystal stones in light green “sea bottom jadeite” (haidi cui). The latter color usually sets off the former, forming pictures of various kinds, seen as towering peaks, rolling waves, deep green forests, fleeting clouds, lingering fog, or even urban skyscrapers. Since Laoshan stones are hard and produced in Shandong, a province with a stone collecting tradition, people today can still find some Laoshan stones collected many years ago.

Laoshan green stones vary with the depth of the water they are taken from. Those from shallow water are more fibrous in form due to their feathery crystal formation, while those from deep water are hard as jade, more compact and bulky due to the greater water pressure. It is marvelous to see jade green color on the surface of a deep green stone.

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